When discussing historical figures in psychology, we cannot overlook Him: the man, the myth, the legend, Sigmund Schlomo Freud. Was he a genius and a pioneer of his time, or was he a madman? Although everyone is entitled to their own opinion on this, let’s examine the sense and nonsense of Freud's ideas. And perhaps even more importantly, the influence he has on psychology today.
Who was Freud?
Freud was born in 1856 into a Jewish family in Freiberg (Příbor), a city in the Czech Republic. At a young age, he moved with his parents and seven siblings to Vienna. He was a smart boy and went to university to study to become a “nerve doctor”, a type of neurologist. After graduating, he worked in a hospital laboratory. There, Freud explored the therapeutic potentials of cocaine. In a remarkable (yet unsuccessful) experiment, he tested this compound in the attempt to treat his friend’s morphine addiction. He also prescribed cocaine to his family and himself when things weren't going so well (let's just say it was a different time). Through various study trips, he came into contact with influential doctors, such as the Frenchman Jean-Martin Charcot and the Austrian Josef Breuer, who were involved in subjects such as hypnosis, hysteria, and talk therapy. A pivotal figure in the development of Freud’s theories was Bertha Pappenheim (better known by her pseudonym Anna O), a patient of Breuer suffering from hysteria since her fathers death, who was treated with the “talking cure”. Her trajectory was extensively reported by Breuer and Freud and published in the book “Studien über Hysterie”. Long story short: Bertha and the many patients that followed inspired Freud to develop the psychoanalytic theory.
Psychoanalytic theory
Freud's psychoanalysis focuses on the unconscious. According to Freud, certain (unpleasant) experiences are suppressed, making us unaware of them. However, this “psychic energy” then seeks other ways to escape, which can lead to physical symptoms or hysteria, a condition in which people lose self-control. Psychoanalytic theory encompasses a whole arsenal of concepts and ideas, a few of which I will explain.
Drive theory. This is the idea that all human behaviour is driven by two types of drives: the life drive (also called libido or Eros) and the death drive (also called Thanatos). The life drive is the motivation to avoid pain and pursue pleasure. It is associated with creativity, social cooperation, and survival of both the individual and the species. The death drive is somewhat more abstract. It is the urge to be in a tension-free state (such as when you are dead) and a desire for destruction, which can be directed both towards yourself and the outside world (for example in the form of aggression). These two drives are said to be the motor behind all our actions, both consciously and unconsciously.
Psychosexual development. Freud often sought explanations for his clients' problems in their childhood. According to his theory, there are five stages of development, each focusing on a different part of the body. In the first 21 months of life, we are in the oral phase. In this phase, the life instinct focuses mainly on eating and putting things in the mouth. This is followed by the anal phase, which lasts until around the age of three, in which toilet training plays a major role. From the age of three to six, children enter the phallic phase, in which they discover their genitals. This is also the phase in which Freud's famous Oedipus complex is said to occur, whereby boys see their fathers as rivals for their mothers' love. A corresponding concept for girls, though less emphasised in Freud’s work, is known as the Electra complex. The fourth phase is the latency phase, which lasts until the age of twelve. In this phase, children are curious about knowledge and learn to suppress their tendencies from the earlier phases. The final stage, which continues into adulthood, is the genital stage, in which adult sexual relationships play a major role. When people do not progress smoothly through these developmental stages but remain stuck in a stage, problems can arise. For example, people who remain stuck in the oral stage may seek oral stimulation in the form of smoking, overeating or excessive drinking.
Dream interpretations. Dreams played an important role in Freud's thinking. They were believed to be messages from the unconscious representing suppressed desires. By deciphering the messages hidden in dreams through symbolism, we could gain insight into our deepest desires, fears, and unresolved emotions.
Criticism
I am certainly not the only one who finds many of Freud's ideas, to put it euphemistically, remarkable. There has always been a lot of controversy surrounding Freud. Initially, this was because sexuality plays a major role in his work, which the prudish 19th-century Austrian society did not approve of. Another point that rubs many people the wrong way is the sexist nature of his claims. Although Freud did allow women into his psychoanalysis association (which was very progressive at the time), his ideas were less feminist. An example of this is the concept of ‘penis envy,’ the realization of girls in the phallic stage that they do not possess male genitalia. According to Freud, women would suffer from this lack to some extent throughout their entire lives.
Although there are other substantive criticisms that could be mentioned, the main problem lies in the explanatory nature of Freud's theory. Psychoanalysis focuses primarily on explaining behaviour retrospectively, rather than predicting it. As a result, claims cannot be empirically tested. For example, Freud explained a young boy's fear of horses by stating that horses symbolised the father, whom the child feared because he harboured unconscious death wishes towards him in order to have his mother for himself. Although this is an intriguing story, because this claim cannot be tested, it cannot be determined whether or not it is true. The crux of the criticism is therefore that the theory cannot be verified or falsified by means of scientific research.
Influence
Although Freud's ideas are no longer literally endorsed by most people today, he has had a lasting influence on psychology. In his day, treatment options for people with mental health problems were very limited. They were often locked up in an asylum (known as “madhouses” at the time) where living conditions were poor and there was hardly any care or treatment. Freud made an important contribution by introducing an alternative treatment in the form of conversations, something that still plays a central role in psychotherapy today. In addition, he made difficult subjects, such as sexuality, discussable and thus contributed to breaking taboos.
In some respects, Freud was ahead of his time. For example, he emphasised the influence early childhood experiences can have on adult life. Indeed, research has shown that experiences and care in first years of life are associated with psychological well-being and relationships later in life (1,2). Freud also had a progressive view on diversity in sexual orientation. He saw variation in sexual orientation as a natural phenomenon and homosexuality not as an illness, something that was widely believed at the time.
What is our final verdict? Although everyone is free to decide for themselves, there is no denying that Freud sparked an important debate within psychology. His ideas led to scientific research into, among other things, the role of the unconscious, the influence of a problematic childhood and the development of various forms of talk therapy (partly to prove Freud wrong). Freud, both intentionally and unintentionally, brought about a paradigm shift and left his mark on how we now view mental health issues.
Author: Pauline van Gils
If you are interested in the life of Freud, I could recommend this four-part podcast of Legacy:
https://open.spotify.com/episode/3yV8HusRvqImrhGEU2YEgo?si=c9913e8a8f0644c6
